Theories+of+Motivation

Motivation is the force that drives us to act or react in a certain manner. The implications of motivation in the field of adult learning are huge. As far as active learning is concerned, it is especially strong motivation that drives the adults to attain their learning objectives by usually engaging in a self-directed approach. Motivation inspires them to participate actively in the learning process. There are various theories that explore the different dimensions of the concept of motivation. Although the world of learning abounds with these theories, the major ones are discussed below:

**Cognitive Theories of Motivation:**
Cognitive theories relate to the nature of motivation in a relatively general context.

Expectancy-value theory states that motivation is based on two factors: an individual's expectations from a given task in any situation or the value that he places on the task he undertakes. If a person has a good amount of expectation from a particular task, he is likely to perform better and, on the contrary, if he does not expect much, he is likely to under perform. Value is another vital factor that affects the quantum of effort an individual puts in for the attainment of any task. If the value associated with the job is huge, the motivation increases and vice versa.
 * Expectancy - Value Theory**

Developed by a psychologist named Frederick Herzberg, this theory talks about satisfaction and dissatisfaction in the workplace. It is also referred to as Herzberg's motivation - hygiene theory or dual factor theory. The theory basically explains that job satisfaction is not a function of one set of factors but works distinctively on two separate factors. The theory was formulated after a great deal of field research work and interviews conducted in Pittsburgh. It talks about two sets of job factors: The presence of motivators acts as a booster for enhancing the work performance, where as the absence of basic facilities in the form of hygiene factors can lead to dissatisfaction and poor results. It is responsibility of the management to take care of both these factors to improve the productivity in their employees.
 * Two Factor Theory**
 * Motivators - refer to the intrinsic factors of motivation like recognition, self-satisfaction, personal growth, etc.
 * Hygiene factors - refer to extrinsic and fundamental factors like job security, salary, workplace environment, workplace culture, etc.

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//Youtube Video on Herzberg's Two Factor Motivation Theory//

Relatively new in its inception, self determination theory or SDT speaks about natural tendencies to behave in an effective manner. It explores that aspect of human nature which includes an innate urge to succeed and grow in life. It excludes any external influence and lays stress on the intrinsic factors of motivation. It also talks about the internalization of the extrinsic factors.
 * Self-determination Theory**

This theory was proposed by Edwin Locke in 1961. According to this theory, goal setting and task performance are interlinked. Specific, clear, realistic and challenging goals inspire workers and employees to be committed and work hard for their attainment. This in turn helps in improving their overall performance. These goals can serve as an inspiration to succeed in the log and short term periods.
 * Goal Setting Theory**

- Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
This most widely used theory of motivation rests on two very strong pillars - intrinsic and intrinsic factors of motivation. Intrinsic motivation is motivation devoid of external pressures and is based on interest in the task itself. Intrinsically motivated students willingly work for the improvement in their performance. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they: Extrinsic motivation as opposed to intrinsic motivation is based on factors that exist outside an individual like money, awards, grades, praise, punishment, etc. Such factors constantly motivate humans for attaining success in their work.
 * can exercise control over the task they undertake
 * believe that their efforts and skills will help them succeed in the task
 * wish to excel in the task

**Learning Theories of Motivation**:
These theories generally explore the relevance of motivation in learning process. Motivation is an integral element for successful learning.

This particular theory as suggested by Albert Bandura states that human behavior influences and is influenced by a person's environment and qualities. Humans observe, pay attention toward a particular process, retain some of the observed information and try to reproduce the results themselves. The force that produces this kind of imitation is called motivation. Motivation is further divided into two types: Reinforcement - A stimulus is added or decreased to increase a desirable behavior. Punishment - A stimulus is added or decreased to decrease an undesirable behavior.
 * Social Learning Theory**

This quite influential theory was proposed by American psychologist Clark Hull. His theory is based on homeostatis - a concept that the human body always works toward creating a state of balance or equilibrium. All motivation arises as a result of the urge to meet these basic biological human needs. Lack or absence of such needs creates tension which is also termed as a drive. Humans work for the fulfillment of such needs or, in other words, drive reduction. The reduction in a particular drive results in the reinforcement for that drive and ensures that the same behavior will occur in the future when that need arises.
 * Hull's drive Theory**

Behaviorism theory states that it is natural for the human behavior to be guided by positive rewards like promotion or negative experiences like punishment. Positive experiences increase the possibility of continued learning where as negative experiences decrease the motivation to learn. Thus effective and timely feedback results in a positive boost in performance of the learner.
 * Behaviorism Theory**

**Historical Theory of Motivation:**
This is a traditional theory that explains the historical aspect and development of motivation rather than a contemporary one.

Also known as instinct theory of motivation, it states that humans are motivated to act in certain ways because they are evolutionary programmed to do so. All human motivation arises due to an inner pattern of behavior based on basic human instincts like attachment, fear, love, etc. However, this theory fails to explain behavior and is based on the influence of genetics and heredity in human behavior.
 * Evolutionary Theory**

**Positive Theories of Motivation:**
This particular theory of psychology was developed by Abraham Maslow in 1943. Maslow uses the terms physiological, safety, belongingness, love, esteem, and self-actualization to describe the basic needs that motivate humans to move forward in life. The basic elements of this theory are portrayed in the form of a pyramid with the four fundamental or primary needs (deficiency needs) of love, security, esteem and physical needs appearing at the bottom. The secondary needs appear at the top of this pyramid. The basic principle on which this theory rests is that the primary needs must be met before an individual works for the attainment of the higher level needs (being needs). The need for self-actualization is placed at the top of the pyramid. Human beings works towards multiple needs at the same time which results in multiple levels of motivation. media type="youtube" key="rbqn_P2aKNo?version=3" height="216" width="384" //Youtube video on Maslow's hierarchy of needs//
 * Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs**

The concept of flow, also known as optimal experience, was developed by Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi. One of the most interesting features of this theory is its intrinsic value and its connection with self-fulfillment through involvement in a particular task. Flow is basically a state of mind where an individual gets absorbed in an act with one hundred percent commitment and this develops a sense of holistic experience or satisfaction. It involves intense concentration and the type of experience that emerges is gratifying in itself. Control, attention, curiosity and intrinsic interest are the four components of the "flow."
 * Flow Theory**

**//Major Motivational Theories on Youtube//**
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